Racindia

Woman in Assam, India

Women in…

…society

• Workforce
• Military
• Politics
• Legal rights

…academics

• Philosophy
• Science
• Engineering
• Computing

…religion

• Buddhism
• Christianity
• Hinduism
• Islam
• Judaism
• Sikhism

…the arts & humanities

• Literature
• Science fiction

…cultural works

• Comics

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From a largely unknown status in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful.

Contents

• 1 History
  • 1.1 Ancient India
  • 1.2 Medieval period
  • 1.3 Historical practices
  • 1.4 British rule
• 2 Independent India
  • 2.1 Timeline
• 3 Culture
• 4 Education and economic development
  • 4.1 Education
  • 4.2 Workforce participation
  • 4.3 Land and property rights
• 5 Crimes against women
  • 5.1 Sexual Harassment
  • 5.2 Dowry
  • 5.3 Female infanticides and sex selective abortions
  • 5.4 Domestic violence
  • 5.5 Trafficking
• 6 Other concerns
  • 6.1 Health
  • 6.2 Family planning
• 7 Notable Indian women
  • 7.1 Arts and entertainment
  • 7.2 Sports
  • 7.3 Politics
  • 7.4 Literature
  • 7.5 Other fields
• 8 See also
• 9 Bibliography
• 10 References
• 11 External links

//

History

Ancient India

Some scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of life.

Some kingdoms in the ancient India had traditions such as nagarvadhu (“bride of the city”). Women competed to win the coveted title of the nagarvadhu. Amrapali is the most famous example of a nagarvadhu.

According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period.

Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the religious order, by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions.

Medieval period

Krishna at Goddesss Radharani’s feet

The Indian woman’s position in the society further deteriorated during the medieval period. In many Muslim families, women were secluded to Zenana.

In spite of these conditions, some women execeled in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion.

The Bhakti cults tried to restore women’s status and questioned some of the forms of oppression. Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Some other female saint-poets from this period include Akkamadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded.

Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu fold to openly advocate social justice and equality between men and women.

Jahanara Begum and Princess Zebunnissa were well-known poetesses and they also influenced the ruling administration.

Shortly after the Bhakti movement, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs also preached the message of equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious assemblies; to perform and lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan or Bhajan; become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; have equality in marriage, and equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preached against the discrimination against women.

See also: Women in Sikhism

Historical practices

Traditions such as sati, jauhar, child marriage, and devadasi have been banned and are largely defunct. However, some cases of these practices are still found in remote parts of India. The purdah is still practised by many Indian women.

Sati
Sati is an old, largely defunct custom, in which the widow was immolated alive on her husband’s funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed to be a voluntary on the widow’s part, it is believed to have been sometimes forced on the widow. It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported cases of sati since independence.

Jauhar
Jauhar refers to the practice of the voluntary immolation of all the wives and daughters of defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high premium on honour.

Child marriages
Earlier, child marriages were highly prevalent in India. The young girls would live with their parents till they reached puberty. In the past, the child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaving heads, living in isolation, and shunned by the society.

Purdah
Purdah is the practice of requiring women to cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women, it curtails their right to interact freely and it is a symbol of the subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or Islam, contrary to common belief, although misconception has occurred due to the ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both faiths.

Devadasis
Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are “married” to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century A.D. In the later period, the illegitimate sexual exploitation of the devadasis became a norm in some parts of India.

British rule

European scholars observed in the 19th century Hindu women are “naturally chaste” and “more virtuous” than other women. During the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule etc. fought for the upliftment of women. Raja Rammohun Roy’s efforts led to the abolition of the Sati practice in 1829. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s crusade for the improvement in condition of widows led to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such as Pandita Ramabai also helped the cause of women upliftment.

Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British. She is now widely considered as a nationalist hero. Begum Hazrat Mahal, the co-ruler of Awadh, was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused the deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The Begums of Bhopal were also few of the notable female rulers during this period. They did not observe purdah and were trained in martial arts.

Chandramukhi Basu, Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were few of the earliest Indian women to obtain educational degrees.

In 1917, the first women’s delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women’s political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women’s Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927.

Women played an important part in India’s independence struggle. Some of the famous freedom fighters include Bhikaji Cama, Dr. Annie Besant, Pritilata Waddedar, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Anjali Ammal, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani and Kasturba Gandhi. Other notable names include Muthulakshmi Reddy, Durgabai Deshmukh etc. The Rani of Jhansi Regiment of Subhash Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army consisted entirely of women including Captain Lakshmi Sahgal. Sarojini Naidu, a poet and a freedom fighter, was the first Indian woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress and the first woman to become the governor of a state in India.

Independent India

Women in India now participate in all activities such as education, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc.

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).

The feminist activism in India picked up momentum during later 1970s. One of the first national level issues that brought the women’s groups together was the Mathura rape case. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station, led to a wide-scale protests in 1979–1980. The protests were widely covered in the national media, and forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian Penal Code and introduce the category of custodial rape. Female activists united over issues such as female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and female literacy.

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India,

In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) have played a major role in women’s rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements. For example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women’s Empowerment (Swashakti).

In 2006, the case of a Muslim rape victim called Imrana was highlighted in the media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to wide-spread protests and finally Imrana’s father-in-law was given a prison term of 10 years, The verdict was welcomed by many women’s groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.

Timeline

The steady change in their position can be highlighted by looking at what has been achieved by women in the country:

• 1905: Suzanne RD Tata becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.
• 1916: The first women’s university, SNDT Women’s University, was founded on June 2, 1916 by the social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve with just five students.
• 1927: The All India Women’s Conference was founded.
• 1994: Harita Kaur Deol becomes the first Indian woman to perform a solo flight.
• 1951: Prem Mathur becomes the first Indian women commercial pilot of the Deccan Airways
• 1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman Judge of High Court
• 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state airline, Indian Airlines.
• 1966: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wins Ramon Magsaysay award for community leadership.
• 1966: Indira Gandhi becomes the first woman Prime Minister of India
• 1970: Kamaljit Sandhu becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the Asian Games
• 1972: Kiran Bedi becomes the first female recruit to join the Indian Police Service.
• 1989: Justice M. Fathima Beevi becomes the first woman judge of the Supreme Court of India.
• November 1997: Kalpana Chawla becomes the first Indian woman to go into Space.
• September 21, 1992: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the Indian Army (later commissioned on March 6, 1993)
• 2004: Punita Arora becomes the first woman in the Indian Army to don the highest rank of Lt General.
• 2005: Manndhir Rajput, a 34-year-old woman from Ludhiana, Punjab becomes the first Indian woman to become an engine driver of trains with the New South Wales Rail Corporation, Australia.
• 2007: Pratibha Patil becomes the first woman President of India.

Culture

Sari (a single piece of a long cloth wound around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by women all over India. Bindi is part of the women’s make-up. Traditionally, it was worn only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women’s fashion.

Rangoli (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women. Popular women’s magazines include Femina, Grihshobha , vanita, Woman’s Era etc.

Education and economic development

According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were female-headed. However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be female-headed.

Education

Though it is gradually rising, the female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy rate. Compared to boys, far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.

Under Non-Formal Education programme, about 40% of the centers in states and 10% of the centers in UTs are exclusively reserved for females. In urban india, girls are nearly at par with the boys in terms of education. However, in rural India girls continue to be less educated than the boys.

According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless)

Workforce participation

Contrary to the common perception, a large percent of women in India work. However, there are far fewer women in the paid workforce than there are men.In urban India Women have impressive number in the workforce. As an example at software industry 30% of the workforce is woman. They are at par with their male counter parts in terms of wages, position at the work place.

In rural India, agriculture and allied industrial sectors employ as much as 89.5% of the total female labour.

One of the most famous female business success stories is the Shri Mahila Griha Udyog, the makers of the Lijjat papad. In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who started Biocon – one of India’s first biotech companies, was rated India’s richest woman. Lalita Gupte and Kalpana Morparia (both were the only businesswomen in India who made our list of the Forbes World’s Most Powerful Women), run India’s second-largest bank, ICICI Bank.

Land and property rights

In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property. In fact, some of the laws discriminate against women, when it comes to land and property rights.

The Hindu personal laws of mid-1956s (applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains) gave women rights to inheritance. However, the sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters’ shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property, but the son will continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even those facing marital harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. After amendment of Hindu laws in 2005, now women in have been provided the same status as that of men.

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an old divorced Muslim woman was eligible for maintenance money. However, the decision was vociferously opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women’s (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act.

Similarly, the Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights of divorce and succession. In 1994, all the churches, jointly with women’s organisations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws.

Crimes against women

Police records show high incidence of crimes against women in India. The National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that the growth rate of crimes against women would be higher than the population growth rate by 2010.

Sexual Harassment

Half of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990 related to molestation and harassment at the workplace. to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner.

In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.

Dowry

Main articles: Dowry and Dowry law in India

In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act,

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules were framed. According to these rules, a signed list of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom should be maintained. The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of whoever has given the present and his/her relationship to the person. However, such rules are hardly enforced.

A 1997 report claimed that at least 5,000 women die each year because of dowry deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in ‘kitchen fires’ thought to be intentional. The term for this is “bride burning” and is criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated, such dowry abuse has reduced dramatically.

Female infanticides and sex selective abortions

Main article: Sex-selective abortion and infanticide

India has a low sex ratio, the chief reason being that many women die before reaching adulthood. It is therefore suggested by many experts, that the low sex ratio in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.

All medical tests that can be used to determine the sex of the child have been banned in India, due to incidents of these tests being used to get rid of unwanted female children before birth. Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural areas. The abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.

Domestic violence

The incidents of domestive violence are higher among the lower Socio-Economic Classes (SECs). There are various instances of an inebriated husband beating up the wife often leading to severe injuries. Domestic violence is also seen in the form of physical abuse. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on October 26, 2006.

Trafficking

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956. However many cases of trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These women are either forced into prostitution, domestic work or child labor.

Other concerns

Health

The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, esp. rural ones, the girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.

The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world.

Family planning

The average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health.

Notable Indian women

Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (January 2007)

Arts and entertainment

Singers and vocalists such as M.S. Subbulakshmi, Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle are widely revered in India. Many actresses such as Aishwarya Rai are highly popular. Anjolie Ela Menon is a famous painter.

Sports

Although the general sports scenario in India is not very good, some Indian women have made notable achievements in the field. Some of the famous female sportspersons in Indian include P. T. Usha (athletics), Kunjarani Devi (weightlifting), Diana Edulji (cricket), Koneru Hampi (chess) and Sania Mirza (tennis). Karnam Malleswari (weightlifter), is the only Indian woman to have won an Olympic medal (Bronze medal in 2000).

Politics

Through the Panchayat Raj institutions, over a million women have actively entered political life in India.

In 2005, the Women’s Reservation Bill was passed, providing 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State Assembly. Some of the notable women leaders in India include Sushma Swaraj, Vasundhara Raje Scindia, Sheila Dikshit, Jayalalitha, Uma Bharati, Mayawati, Mamata Banerjee and Sonia Gandhi. On July 25, 2007 the country’s ever first woman president Pratibha Patil was sworn in.

Literature

Sarojini Naidu, Chandabai, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Mahadevi Varma, Salma Siddiqui, Shivani, Anita Desai, Arundhati Roy, Shashi Deshpande, Shobha De, Kiran Desai, etc. are some of the notable female Indian authors.

Other fields

Tarla Dalal is a popular cookery author, who has written more than 30 books. Several of her books have been translated into various languages, and the total sales of her books exceeds 1 million copies. Shahnaz Husain is one of the most popular Indian beauticians and entrepreneur.

See also

• Feminism in India
• Women’s rights
• Women in Sikhism
• Women in Hinduism

• Sexism in India
• List of Indian women artists
• List of Indian film actresses
• Indian women in dance

Bibliography

• ‘Quand les femmes auront disparu. L’élimination des filles en Inde et en Asie’, Bénédicte Manier, La Découverte, Paris 2006 (a well documented investigation book on “female foeticide” and “missing women” in India, published in French).

References

1. ^ a b c Mishra, R. C. (2006). Towards Gender Equality. Authorspress. ISBN 81-7273-306-2. 
2. ^ Varttika by Katyayana, 125, 2477
3. ^ Comments to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.21 and 4.1.14 by Patanjali
4. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394
5. ^ “Vedic Women: Loving, Learned, Lucky!”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
6. ^ a b c d e f g h i “InfoChange women: Background & Perspective”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
7. ^ a b c d “Women in History”. National Resource Center for Women. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
8. ^ a b c Jyotsana Kamat (2006-11-05). “Status of Women in Medieval Karnataka”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
9. ^ Vimla Dang (1998-06-19). “Feudal mindset still dogs women’s struggle”. The Tribune. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
10. ^ “The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987″. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
11. ^ a b Jyotsna Kamat (2006-12-19). “Gandhi and Status of Women”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
12. ^ BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Child marriages targeted in India
13. ^ K. L. Kamat (2006-12-19). “The Yellamma Cult”. Retrieved on 2006-12-25.
14. ^ Dubois, Jean Antoine and Beauchamp, Henry King, Hindu manners, customs, and ceremonies, Clarendon press, 1897
15. ^ Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity, Ian Bryant Wells
16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Kalyani Menon-Sen, A. K. Shiva Kumar (2001). “Women in India: How Free? How Equal?”. United Nations. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
17. ^ Victoria A. Velkoff and Arjun Adlakha (October 1998). “Women of the World: Women’s Health in India”. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved on 2006-12-25.
18. ^ “National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women (2001)”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
19. ^ “OneWorld South Asia News: Imrana”. Retrieved on 2006-12-25.
20. ^ “Mumbai Police History”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
21. ^ “High Court of Kerala: Former Chief Justices / Judges”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
22. ^ “Kiran Bedi Of India Appointed Civilian Police Adviser”. Retrieved on 2006-12-25.
23. ^ http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/judge.htm
24. ^ http://www.funlok.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1498
25. ^ “Army’S First Lady Cadet Looks Back”. Retrieved on 2007-03-30.
26. ^ The Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Education Tribune
27. ^ Kamat’s Potpourri: The Significance of the holy dot (Bindi)
28. ^ a b c d “Asia’s women in agriculture, environment and rural production: India”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
29. ^ Victoria A. Velkoff (October 1998). “Women of the World: Women’s Education in India”. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved on 2006-12-25.
30. ^ a b “Women of India: Frequently Asked Questions” (2006-12-19). Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
31. ^ India’s Most Powerful Businesswomen. Forbes.com.
32. ^ a b Carol S. Coonrod (June 1998). “Chronic Hunger and the Status of Women in India”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
33. ^ “The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act” (May 1986). Retrieved on 2008-02-14.
34. ^ “The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1987″. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
35. ^ “The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961″. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
36. ^ “The Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules, 1985″. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
37. ^ Kitchen fires Kill Indian Brides with Inadequate Dowry, July 23, 1997, New Delhi, UPI
38. ^ “The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956″. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.
39. ^ “Tarla Dalal – Profile”. Retrieved on 2006-12-24.

External links

• “Nothing to Go Back To – The Fate of the Widows of Vrindavan, India” WNN – Women News Network
• National Commission for Women
• Ministry of Women & Child Development
• South Asian Women’s NETwork (SAWNET)
• Women of the Mughal Dynasty
• Indian women & Dowry law misuse
• Women of India
• 21 Top Women CEOs of India
• The Bangle Code – fiction related to unwritten social rules that Indian women have to deal with
• A global network for Indian Women

v • d • e

Women in Asia

Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma · Cambodia · China (People’s Republic of China ) · Cyprus · East Timor/Timor-Leste1 · Egypt1 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia1 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · Korea (North Korea · South Korea) · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Northern Cyprus2 · Oman · Pakistan · Palestinian territories3 · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · Turkey1 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen1

1 Transcontinental country.  2 Only recognised by Turkey.  3 Not fully independent.

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_India”
Categories: Indian society | Women’s rights in Asia | Asian culture | Indian womenHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since June 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | Articles to be expanded since January 2007 | All articles to be expanded